~~SLIDESHOW~~
~~NOTOC~~

====== Pointers 4 slides ======

Dynamic memory, memory management, pointers as return types.((Portions adapted from:
Gaddis, Tony. "Pointers." In //Starting Out with C++: From Control Structures through Objects//. 8th ed. Boston: Pearson, 2015. 495-546.))\\ 
Mithat Konar\\
October 23, 2021

===== Dynamic memory allocation =====
  * **Dynamic memory allocation** allows you to reserve blocks of computer memory at //runtime//.
  * Typically used with pointers.

===== The new operator =====
  * ''new <data-type>''
    * reserves a block of memory to hold the specified %%<data-type>%%
    * returns the base address of that block.
    * optional parenthesis around ''<data-type>''

<code cpp>
double *foo;      // pointer to a double
foo = new double; // allocate an unnamed block of memory
                  // large enough to hold a double
                  // and set foo to point to it.
</code>

  * ''foo'' points to a ''double'' that isn't associated with a variable identifier.

===== Example =====

<file cpp simple-allocation.cpp>
/** Dynamically allocate and use two doubles. */
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
    double *myPtr, *yourPtr;

    myPtr = new double;
    yourPtr = new double;

    cout << "Enter a number: ";
    cin >> *myPtr;
    cout << "Enter a number: ";
    cin >> *yourPtr;

    cout << "The average of the two numbers is " << (*myPtr + *yourPtr)/2.0 << "." << endl;

    return 0;
}
</file>

===== Dynamic allocation of arrays =====

  * Dynamic memory allocation can be used to allocate an array.
  * Warning: If there is not enough memory available to allocate the desired block, BadThings™ will happen.

<file cpp dynamic-array.cpp>
/** Dynamically allocate and use an array. */
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
    const int SIZE = 10;
    double *arrayPtr = new double[SIZE];  // create block to hold array

    /* You can use subscript notation [] to access an array: */
    for(int i = 0; i < SIZE; i++)
    {
        arrayPtr[i] = i * i;
    }

    /* or pointer arithmetic: */
    for(int i = 0; i < SIZE; i++)
    {
        cout << *(arrayPtr + i) << endl;
    }

    return 0;
}
</file>

===== Memory Management =====

===== Memory management of regular variables =====

  * The management of memory associated with regular local variables is automatic.
  * Regular local variables are destroyed when the lifetime of the scope where they are declared ends.

<file cpp local-var-memory.cpp>
/** Example showing local variable lifetime. */
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

void ninetynine();

int main()
{
    ninetynine();
    
    // ... do some other stuff ... //
    
    return 0;
}

void ninetynine()
{
    int localVar = 99;  // localVar is destroyed at end of fcn call
    cout << localVar << endl;
}
</file>

===== Memory management of dynamically allocated storage =====

  * Dynamically allocated memory is //not// automatically managed.
  * Below, the variable ''localPtr'' is destroyed at the end of the function call, but the dynamically allocated storage for the ''int'' pointed to by ''localPtr'' is not.

<file cpp memory-loss.cpp>
/** Example showing lifetime of dynamically allocated storage and a 
  * a small memory leak.
  */
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

void ninetynine();

int main()
{
    ninetynine();

    // ... do some other stuff ... //
    
    return 0;
}

void ninetynine()
{
    int *localPtr = nullptr;  // localPtr is destroyed at end of fcn call
    localPtr = new int;       // but not dynamically allocated storage

    *localPtr = 99;
    cout << *localPtr << endl;
}
</file>

==== Memory leaks ====

  * The previous is an example of a small **memory leak**.
  * A bigger leak:

<file cpp memory-leak.cpp>
/** Example of a sizable memory leak. */
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

void ninetynine();

int main()
{
    for (int i=0; i<10000; i++)
    {
        ninetynine();
    }
    
    // ... do some other stuff ... //
    
    return 0;
}

void ninetynine()
{
    int *localPtr = new int;

    *localPtr = 99;
    cout << *localPtr << endl;
}
</file>

===== Memory leaks =====

  * Memory leaks, no matter how small, are bad programming practice.
  * Can be fixed by the proper use of **deallocation**: releasing back to the OS storage that was previously dynamically allocated. 
  * **Deallocation of dynamically allocated storage does not happen automatically.**
    * You must explicitly (i.e., manually) deallocate the memory.

===== The delete operator =====
  * The ''delete'' operator lets you explicitly deallocate memory that has been dynamically allocated.

<code cpp>
int *myPtr = new int;
...
delete myPtr; // deallocates block pointed to by myPtr.
</code>

  * Principle: All dynamically allocated memory must be deallocated somewhere in the program.
    * "For every ''new'' a ''delete''."

===== Example =====

The code below fixes the memory leak introduced above:

<file cpp deallocation.cpp>
/** Example showing deallocation. */
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

void ninetynine();

int main()
{
    ninetynine();
    
    return 0;
}

void ninetynine()
{
    int *localPtr = new int;

    *localPtr = 99;
    cout << *localPtr << endl;
    delete localPtr;  // deallocates block pointed to by localPtr.
}
</file>

===== Deallocating arrays =====

Use square brackets to deallocate dynamically allocated arrays: ''delete [] arrayPtr;''

<file cpp Gaddis-Pr9-14.cpp>
// This program totals and averages the sales figures for any
// number of days. The figures are stored in a dynamically
// allocated array.
#include <iostream>
#include <iomanip>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
    double *sales = nullptr,    // To dynamically allocate an array
    total = 0.0,                // Accumulator
    average;                    // To hold average sales
    int numDays,                // To hold the number of days of sales
        count;                  // Counter variable

    // Get the number of days of sales.
    cout << "How many days of sales figures do you wish ";
    cout << "to process? ";
    cin >> numDays;

    // Dynamically allocate an array large enough to hold
    // that many days of sales amounts.
    sales = new double[numDays];

    // Get the sales figures for each day.
    cout << "Enter the sales figures below.\n";
    for (count = 0; count < numDays; count++)
    {
        cout << "Day " << (count + 1) << ": ";
        cin >> sales[count];
    }

    // Calculate the total sales
    for (count = 0; count < numDays; count++)
    {
        total += sales[count];
    }

    // Calculate the average sales per day
    average = total / numDays;

    // Display the results
    cout << fixed << showpoint << setprecision(2);
    cout << "\n\nTotal Sales: $" << total << endl;
    cout << "Average Sales: $" << average << endl;

    // Free dynamically allocated memory
    delete [] sales;
    sales = nullptr; // Make sales a nullptr.

    return 0;
} 
</file>

===== heap vs. stack =====

  * Local variables and dynamically allocated storage come from pools of RAM.
  * **stack**: a pool of memory whose allocation and deallocation is automatically managed.
    * Local and global variables are allocated from the stack.
  * **heap**: a pool of memory whose allocation and deallocation is explicitly managed.
    * Dynamically allocated storage is allocated from the heap.
  * A more detailed discussion of the heap versus the stack, while important, is beyond the scope of present discussion.

===== ''malloc'' and ''free'' =====
  * ''malloc'' and ''free'' can also used be used to allocate and deallocate storage.
  * Part of C and so are available in C++ as well.
  * More cumbersome than ''new'' and ''delete'', so their use is discouraged.

===== Returning Pointers from Functions =====
A function can return a pointer:

<file cpp returned-pointer.cpp>
/** Returning a pointer from a function. */
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

char* someChar();

int main()
{
    char *foo;

    foo = someChar();

    cout << *foo << endl;

    return 0;
}

char* someChar()
{
    char *myCharPtr = new char;

    *myCharPtr = 'a';

    return myCharPtr;
}
</file>

===== Returning Pointers from Functions =====

  * Do not return a pointer to a local variable in a function---because that local variable will cease to exist after the function terminates.
  * Only return a pointer to:
    * data that was passed to the function as an argument
    * dynamically allocated memory
    * ''nullptr''.

===== Example =====

<file cpp Gaddis-Pr9-15.cpp>
// This program demonstrates a function that returns
// a pointer.
#include <iostream>
#include <cstdlib>   // For rand and srand
#include <ctime>     // For the time function
using namespace std;

// Function prototype
int *getRandomNumbers(int);

int main()
{
   int *numbers;  // To point to the numbers
   
   // Get an array of five random numbers.
   numbers = getRandomNumbers(5);
   
   // Display the numbers.
   for (int count = 0; count < 5; count++)
      cout << numbers[count] << endl;

   // Free the memory.
   delete [] numbers;
   numbers = 0;
   return 0;
}

//**************************************************
// The getRandomNumbers function returns a pointer *
// to an array of random integers. The parameter   *
// indicates the number of numbers requested.      *
//**************************************************

int *getRandomNumbers(int num)
{
   int *arr = nullptr;	// Array to hold the numbers
   
   // Return null if num is zero or negative.
   if (num <= 0)
      return NULL;
   
   // Dynamically allocate the array.
   arr = new int[num];
   
   // Seed the random number generator by passing
   // the return value of time(0) to srand.
   srand( time(0) );
   
   // Populate the array with random numbers.
   for (int count = 0; count < num; count++)
      arr[count] = rand();
      
   // Return a pointer to the array.
   return arr;
}
</file>

===== Smart Pointers =====

  * C++11's //smart pointers// manage their own memory to help mitigate memory leaks.
  * You need to ''#include <memory>''.
  * One smart pointer is the ''unique_ptr'':

''**unique_ptr<**//type_pointed_to//**>** //pointer_name//**(** //expression_to_allocate_memory// **)**''

===== Example =====

''ptr'' will be automatically deleted when the function returns.

<file c++ Gaddis-Pr9-17.cpp>
// This program demonstrates a unique_ptr.
#include <iostream>
#include <memory>
using namespace std;

int main() 
{
   // Define a unique_ptr smart pointer, pointing
   // to a dynamically allocated int.
   unique_ptr<int> ptr( new int );

   // Assign 99 to the dynamically allocated int.
   *ptr = 99;

   // Display the value of the dynamically allocated int.
   cout << *ptr << endl;
   return 0;
}
</file>

===== Example =====

Dynamically allocating a large block of managed memory.

<file c++ Gaddis-Pr9-18.cpp>
// This program demonstrates a unique_ptr pointing
// to a dynamically allocated array of integers.
#include <iostream>
#include <memory>
using namespace std;

int main() 
{
   int max;   // Max size of the array

   // Get the number of values to store.
   cout << "How many numbers do you want to enter? ";
   cin >> max;
   
   // Define a unique_ptr smart pointer, pointing
   // to a dynamically allocated array of ints.
   unique_ptr<int[]> ptr( new int[max]);

   // Get values for the array.
   for (int index = 0; index < max; index++)
   {
      cout << "Enter an integer number: ";
      cin >> ptr[index];
   }

   // Display the values in the array.
   cout << "Here are the values you entered:\n";
   for (int index = 0; index < max; index++)
      cout << ptr[index] << endl;

   return 0;
}
</file>

===== Other smart pointers =====
  * Other smart pointers are ''weak_ptr'' and ''shared_ptr''.
  * Not covered here.